Based on what has been examined up to this point, Miles Davis concerned himself with innovation and advancing his creativity. He refused to allow record companies dictate how he should write his music. The jazz fusion albums of In a Silent Way, Bitches Brew and On the Corner all serve as testament to his persistence. From a compositional (and aural) standpoint, these particular albums also demonstrate diverse and unpredictable approaches to jazz. Because of the nature of the music, no lead sheets or solo transcriptions of these albums exist. Thus, they must be described according to their track times and what one hears on the recordings.
Recorded in February of 1969, the LP version of In a Silent Way consists of three tracks: “Shhh/Peaceful,” “In a Silent Way” and “It’s About That Time.”[1] Other than its length, several significant factors make this album intriguing. The first stems from its overall sound palate. In a Silent Way presents an unusual instrumental ensemble from the perspective of jazz. Aside from the tenor saxophone and trumpet of Wayne Shorter and Miles Davis, the album also utilizes an electric organ, two electric keyboards, electric guitar, bass and drum set. The album also mostly remains grounded in one musical key per track and uses predominantly slow and steady tempi.[2]
Perhaps what is most unusual about In a Silent Way, though, is Davis’ approach to his solo. This can best be exemplified in “Shhh/Peaceful.” Davis does not enter until the 1:44 mark of the recording. Before that, the rest of the ensemble (except for Shorter) plays individual musical lines. Given the sporadic nature of the opening (0:00-1:43), one is left to wonder where the “head” of the piece occurs. As for Davis, his solo on this track features a sparse texture of short and long notes. Sometimes, as in 2:43-2:50, his solo extends to the higher registers of the given key (D Major). Additionally, he approaches the musical key modally; in this instance, his melodic line utilizes a jagged, descending D Dorian modal scale (or A Aeolian).[3]
Another significant aspect of In a Silent Way, as well as On the Corner and Bitches Brew, stems from Davis’ collaboration with the various performers. Some of these performers arrived from European countries, such as guitarist John McLaughlin (United Kingdom), bassist Dave Holland (United Kingdom), and keyboardist Joseff Zawinul (Austria)[4]. Their musical involvement helps to give In a Silent Way its distinctive sound. This is not to suggest that they always agreed with what Miles had in mind with his music, however. For example, although Joe Zawinul received credit for writing the title track, Davis subverted the music to suit his needs.[5]
Advancements in music recording technology also play a vital role in the construction of In a Silent Way and Davis’ subsequent albums. With the assistance of audio engineer Teo Macero, In a Silent Way utilized a plethora of taped recording sessions. These were, then, edited and spliced together. According to John Szwed, this complex process involved. “… two stacks of eight-track tapes of the recording they (Miles’ ensemble) had done, each stack to be used to make up a single piece, one for each side of an LP.”[6] Davis’ involvement in the recording and editing process also contributed significantly to the structure of In a Silent Way. Davis would frequently collaborate with Macero to determine which materials from the recording sessions were to be kept or removed. As the preserved complete recording sessions of In a Silent Way demonstrate, several tracks did not make the “original” LP (eg., “Splashdown,” “The Ghetto Walk,” etc.). These sessions also illustrate that Davis either wanted to perform some pieces differently (as with his early rehearsal of “In a Silent Way”) or incorporate older material (as with “Mademoiselle Mabry” from Filles de Kilimonjaro). [7]
Macero’s techniques might not appear as aurally obvious at first. One must listen to this album several times in order to detect these subtleties. These instances occur in several places on In a Silent Way. On “Shhh/Peaceful, the Recapitulation at 11:57 returns to the “head” of the piece. What is unusual is that this segment sounds nearly identical (in instrumentation and approach) to its first occurrence from 0:00 to 1:43.[8]
Editing becomes more obvious on the last two tracks of the same album. The ending of “In a Silent Way” leads into “It’s About That Time” without pause at 4:10. This final track also suddenly shifts to a repeated descending riff of six chords in the key of F Major (as denoted by the electric keyboards) from 4:57 to 11:56. “It’s About That Time,” does not end here, though. For the conclusion, the same material from “In a Silent Way” is brought back in its entirety. This gives the work, a cyclical nature.[9]
Bitches Brew also recorded in 1969 several months later, uses nearly the same tape-splicing procedures established by Teo Macero. A more in-depth listening to this album reveals noticeable occurrences: as in 1:38 of “Pharaoh’s Dance,” where the “head” of the piece returns abruptly. The album utilizes an additional recording technique on this album. John Szwed indicates that the overall sound is captured “… in quadraphonic format.”[10] The massive seven tracks that comprise Bitches Brew, spanning two LPs (roughly ninety minutes of music altogether) show Davis’ constant experimentation with instrumentation and technology. As Szwed notes, Davis incorporates a slightly larger roster of performers than he does on In a Silent Way:
… the two drummers were Jack DeJohnette and Lenny White; Don Alias and Jumma Santos (Jim Riley) were the percussionists; the reeds were Wayne Shorter on soprano saxophone and Bennie Maupin on bass clarinet; and there were two keyboardists. Joe Zawinul and Chick Corea (on two other pieces recorded at the same time, Larry Young was also added.[11]
This unusual pairing and addition of instruments, once again, does not conform to the “traditional” jazz ensemble (particularly with the bass clarinet). John McLaughlin and Dave Holland also appear on this album. McLaughlin receives more time to solo his electric guitar, as is evident in the track on “John McLaughlin”, which bears his name. It should also be noted that that Davis intended to include non-Western instruments in this ensemble as well. The recording sessions of Bitches Brew (on four CDs) feature John McLaughlin performing on the sitar.[12] Davis’ solos on this album retain their sense of sparse melodic textures, as with In a Silent Way. Yet, he experiments more with playing the upper partials of notes. Sometimes, as from 5:05 to 5:10 of the same track, the high notes of his trumpet screech or squeak[13].
What makes this particular album stand out, though, is the modification of Miles Davis’ trumpet. It uses the interesting musical effects of electric amplification, echo and reverberation. These effects are especially present on the first disc of Bitches Brew. In the first track (“Pharaoh’s Dance”), the use of reverberation and echo in his solos becomes clearer from 8:30 to 8:50. At this particular point in the music (roughly midway), the four notes gradually increase in speed. A better example of this same technique can also be heard in the second track of the same disc (“Bitches Brew”). Here, Davis presents a very slow melody through augmentation. This odd speed, however, enables him to explore the timbre of his instrument accentuated by echo and reverberation.[14]
The compositional approach to Bitches Brew, additionally raises several intriguing points about Miles Davis’ view of music. The rehearsals for this album represent several deviations in terms of recordings. On this album, Davis wanted the album to be recorded without pause. This meant that the tape recorder would keep running in its entirety.[15] In the recording sessions of Bitches Brew, for instance, one can listen to brief conversations between certain performers and Miles Davis. This is especially clear on the tracks that did not make the LP. In the introduction to “Corrado,” John McLaughlin asks Davis which take he is performing. This is followed by Davis’ muffled and blunt reply (almost on the verge of his signature profanity): “… It’s gonna’ be one, nine, what difference does it make…??!“ (0:10-20).[16]
Additionally, the sessions for Bitches Brew consisted of constant improvisation. The performers received musical cues rather than lead sheets. Davis’ role involved directing the music in the studio and altering it depending on the sound that he wanted.[17] Taking this specific aspect into consideration, it is understandable why the music on Bitches Brew sounds sporadic.
On the Corner from 1972, by contrast, signals yet another creative deviation. For this album, Miles Davis attempted to fuse jazz with funk. As mentioned earlier, he became inspired by the sounds of James Brown, Sly Stone and Jimmi Hendrix. Because Davis also gained exposure to the rapidly changing trends of twentieth century Classical music, On the Corner additionally incorporates the techniques of German composer Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928-2007). Musicologist Barry Bergstein has suggested that both Stockhausen and Davis were well aware of each other’s works. The two eventually attempted a collaborative recording several years later (“… June of 1980”).[18]
With regards On the Corner, the aural perspective of the album is radically different from the previous two albums discussed. It features a large list of performers whom, according to Philip Freeman, Davis neglects to mention on the LP.[19] The first aspect that one notices is its intentional redundancy. The first four tracks on the album (“On the Corner”/ “New York Girl”/ “Thinkin’ of One Thing and Doin’ Another” / “Vote for Miles”) feature the same rhythmic pattern and key of E-Flat Major throughout. Also, although Davis is present in On the Corner, his sound blends in with the ensemble to the point where it is almost unrecognizable. This is because his trumpet has been modified, again: this time, with a wah-wah pedal. This album also consists of Indian musical instruments, such as the sitar and tabla. Although these instruments appear throughout most of On the Corner, their presence is best detected on the fifth track of the album (“Black Satin”). In this case, they serve to shape the introductory and closing material of the piece (0:00-0:34, 4:30-5:15). [20] As with the other fusion albums discussed, the recording sessions for On the Corner feature extra material (on six discs). Many of the pieces in this large set consist of unedited masterings (“On the Corner), brief fragments (“Holly-wuud”) and long pieces that could not fit the time span of an LP album (“Turn Around,” “U-Turn Around,” etc.).[21]
Footnotes
[1] Miles Davis, In a Silent Way. Sony Music Entertainment Inc., CD, 1969, 1985.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid., Tr. 1.
[4] Quincy Troupe, “From Kind of Blue to Bitches Brew,” in Miles Davis and American Culture, ed. Gerald Early (St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, 2001), 126.
[5] John Szwed, “Chapter Six,” in So What: The Life of Miles Davis (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002), 279.
[6] Ibid., 280.
[7] Ibid., 280-81; Miles Davis, The Complete In a Silent Way Sessions. Sony Music Entertainment Inc., CD 2001.
[8] Miles Davis, In A Silent Way. Sony Music Entertainment Inc., CD, 1969, 1985 Tr. 1.
[9] Ibid., Tr. 2-3.
[10] John Szwed, “Chapter Six,” in So What: The Life of Miles Davis (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002), 293.
[11] Ibid., 292.
[12] Miles Davis. The Complete Bitches Brew Sessions, Sony Music Entertainment Inc., CD, 1998. Disc 1,Tr. 4; Disc 2, Tr. 3.
[13] Miles Davis, Bitches Brew, Sony Music Entertainment Inc., CD, 1970 (?), 1999, Disc 1, Tr. 1, 2
[14] Ibid., Disc 1. Tr. 2
[15] John Szwed, “Chapter Seven,” in So What: The Life of Miles Davis (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002), 293.
[16] Miles Davis, The Complete Bitches Brew Sessions. Sony Music Entertainment Inc., CD,1998. Disc 2,Tr. 6.
[17] John Szwed, “Chapter Seven,” in So What: The Life of Miles Davis (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002), 291-99.
[18] Barry Bergstein, “Miles Davis and Karlheinz Stockhausen: A Reciprocal Relationship,” in The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 76, 4 (1992) http://www.jstor.org/stable/742474 (accessed February 27, 2014).
[19] Philip Freeman, “Chapter Six: On the Corner,” in Running the Voodoo Down: The Electric Music of Miles Davis (San Fransisco: Backbeat Books, 2005), 100.
[20]Miles Davis, On the Corner. Sony Music Entertainment Inc., CD,1972. Tr. 1-4, 5. The Complete On the Corner Sessions, Sony BMG Music Entertainment Inc. CD, 2007. Disc 1, Tr. 1; Disc 6, Tr. 7; Disc 2, Tr. 4, 5.
[21] The Complete On the Corner Sessions, Sony BMG Music Entertainment Inc. CD, 2007. Disc 1, Tr. 1; Disc 6, Tr. 7; Disc 2, Tr. 4, 5.